Architectural Coatings that Reduce Heating and Cooling Costs

In order to appreciate architectural coatings that reduce heating and cooling costs, it is important to understand the fundamentals regarding US energy consumption. According to the U.S. Energy Information Service, 40 percent of all US energy consumption is used for heating and cooling residential and commercial buildings. For homeowners, 25 percent of their average energy bill is for cooling. Considering these facts, consumers appreciate any efficiencies coatings formulators can offer.

Heat transfer mechanisms

Prior to considering how coatings can be engineered to save heating and cooling costs, it is instructive to examine heat transfer mechanisms: radiation, conduction, and convection.

Radiation

As figure 1 indicates, radiation is the emission and propagation of light energy in the form of rays or waves through space:

architectural-fig1
Figure 1 – Radiation light spectrum1

As figure 2 illustrates, pigments can absorb or reflect solar infrared energy based on their color.  For example, if the pigment absorbs infrared (IR) energy (such as conventional darker pigments), we see heat build-up of the coated substrate. If the pigment reflects IR light (such as white and lighter colors), we see a lower increase in temperature.

To illustrate, the surface of a steel building at an ambient air temperature of 20° C will remain at about 20° C when painted white, whereas the surface will be about 35° C when painted black.

 

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Ron Lewarchik, Author of article & President of Chemical Dynamics

As a contributing writer, Ron pens articles on topics relevant to formulators in the coatings industry. He also serves as a consultant for the Prospector materials search engine, advising on issues related to optimization and organization materials within the database.

Metal Surface Treatment – The Key to Successful Performance

No matter what metal surface needs to be painted, successful performance begins with proper cleaning and surface preparation. This article will concentrate on the essential issues in the manufacturing process necessary to ensure successful metal treatment and resultant coating performance. As there are hundreds of surface treatments, we will address the major factors that influence phosphate metal pretreatment which are one of the most widely used pretreatment chemistries. Phosphate treatments are used on steel, zinc and aluminum substrates.

The pretreatment process for metal surfaces provides multiple benefits as it is the foundation of the paint layering system. A quality metal treatment process enhances adhesion between the metal and paint layers by providing a more uniform surface and provides greater corrosion resistance with less undercutting of the paint film.

Table I – Typical Spray or Immersion Process involved in Phosphate Pretreatment

PROCESS STEP ORDER PURPOSE CHEMICALS POTENTIAL PROBLEM(S)
1. Cleaning (see Figs I & II) Remove soils, mill oil, lubricating oil and drawing compounds, dissolution of metal oxide(s), precipitate hard water deposits Alkaline Cleaner
  1. Incomplete removal, synthetic oils can be more difficult to remove than natural oils
  2. Contaminated cleaning process, cleaning chemicals spent
  3. Temperature too low
  4. Poor tank maintenance
  5. Inadequate mechanical action
  6. Change in time, temperature, pressure (for spray cleaner) or cleaner concentration
2. Water rinse(s) Remove residual detergents and deposits Quality tap water and/or reverse osmosis (R/O) water
  1. Drag out water sensitive deposits from the cleaning process
  2. Tap water that contains hard water may deposit moisture soluble compounds on the metal surface
3. Rinse Conditioner (see Fig III) For Phosphate- Aids in the development of the proper phosphate crystals on the metal surface Colloidal Titanium Salts and additives Destabilization of the Ti Colloid:

  1. pH too low or too high
  2. High heat
  3. Contamination
  4. Poor water quality (too hard)
4. Phosphate Step (See Fig IV) Forms a microcrystalline coating to enhance paint adhesion and corrosion resistance
  1. Phosphoric and nitric acid
  2. Zn, Ni, Mn Fe cations
  3. Fluoride, Surfactants and accelerator
  1. Must continually remove iron phosphate sludge for proper control
  2. Ensure optimum recirculation rate for tank process or spray nozzle pressure for spray process
5. Rinse Stops the chemical reaction on the metal surface Water Water must be clean
6. Post Rinse Fill voids in pretreatment Hexafluorozirconqic acid Proper control of pH, time , temperature and pressure (spray)
7. Deionized (D.I.) Rinse(s) Remove any residual chemicals and to provide a clean surface for coating D.I. Recirculating rinse, followed by a D.I rinse Carry over of chemicals and other contaminants from previous steps. Must ensure that D.I. water quality is maintained

 

To read the rest of the article, written by Ron Lewarchik, please click here to head over to UL Prospector.

__________

Ron Lewarchik, Author of article & President of Chemical Dynamics

As a contributing writer, Ron pens articles on topics relevant to formulators in the coatings industry. He also serves as a consultant for the Prospector materials search engine, advising on issues related to optimization and organization materials within the database.

The Fundamentals of Emulsion Polymerization

This article will detail the fundamentals of emulsion polymerization. Emulsion polymerization was developed by The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company in the 1920s. The emulsion-polymerization process results in a latex particle, which is a dispersion of polymer in water. Waterborne coatings that primarily use emulsion polymers are the largest type of coating technology used on a global basis and are expected to continue to grow as a percent of the total coatings market.

In emulsion polymerization, monomers are first dispersed in the aqueous phase. Initiator radicals are generated in the aqueous phase and migrate into the soap micelles that are swollen with monomer molecules. As the polymerization proceeds, more monomers migrate into the micelle to enable the polymerization to continue.

figure1

Since only one free radical is present in the micelle prior to termination, very high molecular weights are possible., on the order of 1,000,000 or higher. Unlike solution polymers, the viscosity of latexes are governed by the viscosity of the medium the particles are dispersed in (continuous medium). Chain transfer agents are added to control the molecular weight. The resultant emulsion particle is an oil in water emulsion. monomer in the aqueous phase.

A less commonly used emulsion technique called the inverse emulsion-polymerization process involves dispersing an aqueous solution of monomer in the nonaqueous phase.

Emulsion polymerization can occur using a batch process, semi-continuous process or continuous process. Commerciallatex polymers are made using a semi-continuous or continuous process rather than a simple batch process because the heat evolved in a simple emulsion batch process would be uncontrollable in a large reaction vessel. In the semi-continuous batch process, monomers and initiators are added in proportions and at a controlled rate so that rapid polymerization occurs. In this method, the monomer concentration is low, also called under-starved monomer conditions, to facilitate temperature control. It is also common to start the polymerization using a seed latex.

In the continuous process, the reaction system is continuously fed to, and removed from, a suitable reactor at rates such that the total volume of the system undergoing reaction at any instant is constant.

 

To read the rest of the article, written by Ron Lewarchik, please click here to head over to UL Prospector.

__________

Ron Lewarchik, Author of article & President of Chemical Dynamics

As a contributing writer, Ron pens articles on topics relevant to formulators in the coatings industry. He also serves as a consultant for the Prospector materials search engine, advising on issues related to optimization and organization materials within the database.

 

Using Effect Pigments for Limitless Coatings Design Possibilities

Effect Pigments, UL Prospector, Ronald Lewarchik, 5/2016: Effect pigments provide an infinite array of colors and effects that enable unlimited design possibilities for coatings. These effects include the illusion of flickering lights, metallic reflection, interference sparkle and color variation and luster that changes with the viewing angle and light source.

They are used in a variety of coatings, including those in automotive, monumental and smaller buildings as well as other industrial and product finishing applications. Pigments may be broadly classified by their ability to reflect light: absorption, metallic and interference.

Conventional organic and inorganic pigments are classified as absorption pigments, because they absorb certain wavelengths of the incident light that strikes their surface. The sensation of color is produced by the remaining component of the reflected visible light that produces the color we observe.

For example, a quinacridone red pigment reflects the portion of the light that produces a red color and absorbs the rest of the light energy. Titanium dioxide reflects all of the light and absorbs none, while carbon black absorbs all and reflects none. Due to their ability to absorb light, absorption pigments do not display a metallic luster or iridescence and are thus one dimensional in their ability to interact with light.

Metallic pigments consist of tiny flat pieces of aluminum, bronze, zinc, copper, silver or other metals that reflect light and thus create a metallic luster. These pigments are two- dimensional or metallic pigments.

Get Material Data Interference pigments consist of various layers of, for example, a metal oxide deposited onto mica, a natural mineral. Light striking the surface of these pigments is refracted, reflected and scattered by the layers that make up the pigment. Through a superimposition (or interference) of the reflected rays of light, a changing array of color is created, with the most intense color seen at the angle of reflection.

Effect pigments are unique in respect to how they interact with light due to their geometry which is normally a platelet with a high aspect ratio (ratio of width to height). Depending upon the specific technology, a wide variety of colors and effects can be created, such as interference shimmers, color travel effects or metallic reflection.

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Acrylic Resin Fundamentals

Acrylic Resin Fundamentals, UL Prospector, Ronald Lewarchik, 4/2016:

Coatings utilizing acrylic resins are the leading polymer technology in the coatings industry. Historically alkyd finishes have held the leading position in coatings for decades. Acrylics are utilized in architectural coatings, product finishes for original equipment manufacture including automotive (OEM) and refinish, as well as special-purpose coatings.

Acrylic resins are primarily based on acrylate and methacrylate monomers and provide good weather resistance, resistance to hydrolysis, gloss and color retention in exterior applications. Due to their versatility and performance, acrylic coatings account for over 25% of all coatings and global sales approaching $25 billion. Acrylic resins can be thermoplastic or thermosett and are used in organic solvent born, waterborne, powder and radiation-curable coatings

Table I – Tg of Nonfunctional Homopolymers
Table I – Tg of Nonfunctional Homopolymers

Three broad classes of liquid coatings utilizing acrylic resins include thermoplastic, thermoset and waterborne. Many acrylic resins may also include other vinyl monomers such as styrene or vinyl acetate primarily to reduce cost. Acrylic monomers have a lower Tg than their analogous methacrylate monomers (for example compare the Tg for n-butyl acrylate versus n-butyl methacrylate see Table I and Table II). As Table II suggests, the glass transition temperature of the monomers selected for synthesis of a resin can be selected to enhance multiple properties that may include weather resistance, moisture resistance, oxygen permeability, flexibility reactivity, cure and hardness. In addition, acrylics can be functionalized with a variety of monomers to provide improved adhesion to metal, or to react for example with aminoplast or isocyanate crosslinkers.

acrylics_table_2 
Table II Relationship of Tg to Physical Properties

Thermoplastic acrylic polymers (TPA) in general have excellent properties including exterior durability. Such resins were widely used in automotive OEM and Refinish topcoats from the 50’s to the 70’s, but their use has dramatically declined due to the high molecular weight necessary to provide properties, they require a high amount of organic solvent to enable air atomized spray application. Accordingly these paints apply at about 20% weight solids. Thermoplastic resins typically use a high level of methyl methacrylate in their polymer backbone to provide excellent hardness and exterior durability.

Figure I – Structure of poly MMA and poly MA 
Figure I – Structure of poly MMA and poly MA

Thermosetting acrylic resins (TSA) are designed with functional monomers to either react with themselves when exposed to heat or moisture, or with that of a cross-linker to form a cross-linked film. Thermoset resins as a group are lower molecular weight and thus have higher application solids. Once cross-linked, as a class they offer films with excellent resistance to organic solvents, moisture and UV light and do not soften appreciably when exposed to moderately high temperatures as thermoplastics do.  An example of acrylic monomers with functional groups that can be used to functionalize acrylic polymers to provide properties such as crosslinking, self-crosslinking, improved adhesion or pigment wetting are provided in Table III.

Table III – Functional Acrylic Monomers 
Table III – Functional Acrylic Monomers

Being able to functionalize an acrylic resin with a wide range of reactive moieties provides the ability to tailor the performance of the resin backbone to provide improved adhesion over a variety of substrates, improved pigment wetting and/or the ability to provide crosslinking or self-crosslinking. Other acrylic monomers are also available to impart sulfonic acid, or phosphoric acid functionality to the acrylic resin.

Being able to functionalize an acrylic resin with a wide range of reactive moieties provides the ability to tailor the performance of the resin backbone to provide improved adhesion over a variety of substrates, improved pigment wetting and/or the ability to provide crosslinking or self-crosslinking. Other acrylic monomers are also available to impart sulfonic acid, or phosphoric acid functionality to the acrylic resin.

Carbamate functional acrylics can also be made for example by reacting an isocyanate functional acrylic with hydroxypropyl carbamate. Many of the acrylics in the category of functionalized acrylic resins are used in automotive OEM and refinish clearcoats to provide an excellent combination of mar resistance, chemical resistance and light stability.

 

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Basics of Alkyd Resin Technology

Mastering the fundamentals of Alkyd Resin Technology

Although alkyds are no longer the largest volume resin type used in coatings, they still play a significant role in the coatings industry, not only because of their versatility, but also because they employ a significant amount of renewable material.

The term alkyd is derived from alcohol and acid.

Alkyds are prepared from the condensation reaction between polyols, dibasic acids and fatty acids. The fatty acid portion is derived from vegetable matter and thus is a renewable resource. Key performance features of alkyds include their ability to offer improved surface wetting (from the bio-based fatty acid portion of substrates and pigments) and lower cost (also primarily from the fatty acid portion). The most widely used polyols include glycerol, pentaerythritol and trimethyol propane whereas the most widely used dibasic acids are phthalic anhydride and isophthalic acid.

Alkyd figure one updated

Naturally-occurring oils are in the form of triglcerides. Triglycerides are triesters of glycerol and fatty acids. Triglycerides can be drying oils, but many are not. The reactivity of drying oils with oxygen results in 1,4 –dienes. The naturally-occurring oils are comprised of mixtures of mixed triglycerides with different fatty acids as part of the glyceride molecules.

Some of these glyceride molecules are comprised of a higher percentage of fatty acids with a greater amount of non-conjugated unsaturation with diallylic methylene groups and result in improved drying capability. For example, linoleic acid has one active diallylic group (-CH=CH – CH2 – CH=CH -), whereas linolenic has two active methylene groups. Also, to increase drying speed, alkyds can be modified with vinyl toluene or styrene to increase the Tg and thus reduce the time required to reach a given hardness. If the amount of oil in an alkyd is over 60%, it is called a long oil alkyd. If it’s between 40 and 60%, it’s known as a medium oil alkyd, and those with less than 40 are considered short oil alkyds. The formula for calculating the percent oil length based on the amount of fatty acid is as follows:

Alkyd 2

In addition to the amount of oil as well as the selection of the alcohol and acid functional components, the type of oil has a profound effect on the dry time and performance.

Fatty acids are further categorized into drying, semidrying and non-drying. Non-conjugated oils are considered drying oils if their drying index, as calculated as follows, is more than 70. The higher the amount ofLinolenic and Linoleic content, the higher the drying index:Alkyd 3

Although drying speed is improved as the % linolenic increases, the rate of yellowing for exterior white coatings is also greater. Accordingly, alkyds using safflower and sunflower oils which provide improved resistance to yellowing as a result of their lower linolenic content.

Alkyd 4Alkyd 5

In addition to classifying alkyds by their oil length and the type of fatty acid present, alkyds are also classified into oxidizing and non-oxidizing categories. Oxidizing alkyds crosslink through a complex multistage auto-oxidation mechanism, whereas Non-oxidizing alkyds do not crosslink and are thus thermoplastic unless their available hydroxyl groups are crosslinked with an aminoplast (heat cured) or isocyanate crosslinker (ambient cured).

To read the rest of the article, written by Chemical Dynamics’ President, Ron Lewarchik, click over to UL Prospector here.

UV-LED Curable Coatings Offer a High-Speed Light Curing Process

UV-LED Curable Coatings offer a high-speed light curing process with a number of advantages over more conventional cure processes. Multiple advantages include High speed, lower energy requirements, little or no VOC, less production space, less dirt collection, high quality finish, rapid processing as well as instant on-off with some UV light technologies also expedite production and energy savings. UV Curable paint finishes have existed since the 1960’s and are based on polymerization reactions including free radical and cation-initiated chain-growth polymerization. As the majority of coatings for UV cure coating utilize free radical polymerization (>90% of market), this article will focus primarily on free radical polymerization initiated by a photoinitiator (Fig. 1):

Figure 1 Rev

The types of unsaturation used in UV/EB cure coatings are provided in Table I, with by far the largest type being acrylate.

Table I – Type of Unsaturation used in UV/EB Cure
Table I – Type of Unsaturation used in UV/EB Cure

Photoinitiator

considerations primarily include two different characteristics of the photoinitiator’s absorption curve. First, is the maximum wavelength (Lambda Max) of light that is absorbed by the PI and second, the strength of this absorption (molar extinction coefficient). Photoinitiators developed for curing pigmented films normally have higher molar extinction coefficients at longer wavelengths between 300 nm to 450 nm than those for curing clear formulations. To maximize cure and efficiency, the PI’s absorbance must match the light output of the lamp as different lamps have different spectral outputs (see Table I). Longer wave- length light is also essential to enhance cure in thicker coatings. Newer PI’s have also enabled the formulation of pigmented coatings in addition to that of clear coatings. The general cure considerations influenced by color, PVC, pigment particle size and film thickness are summarized in Fig. 2:

Figure 2 – UV Cure Considerations
Figure 2 – UV Cure Considerations. Image: Ciba – Geigy literature

There are two main types of free radical photoinitiators, Type I and Type II. Type I photoinitiators undergo cleavage upon irradiation to form two free radicals. Normally only one of these free radicals is reactive and thus initiates polymerization. 1-hydroxy-cyclohexylphenyl-ketone is a widely used Type I PI. Type II photoinitiators form an excited state upon irradiation, and abstract an atom or electron from a donor molecule (synergist). The donor molecule in turn initiates polymerization. An example of a widely used Type II photoinitiator is benzophenone. Tertiaryamines are typically used as synergists as they react with benzophenone, and also retard the inhibition of polymerization by oxygen. Acrylated tertiary amine compounds are used when odor and extractables are of concern. Oxygen can also inhibit cure especially in thin films; to counteract oxygen inhibition, coatings can use amine synergists, be cured under a nitrogen atmosphere, employ the addition of wax, high initiator concentration, more intense UV Light, and/or surface active initiators.

 

To read the rest of the article, written by Chemical Dynamics’ President, Ron Lewarchik, click over to UL Prospector here.